A12752W1
SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION
Honour School of Philosophy, Politics and Economics
Honour School of Economics and Management
Honour School of History and Economics
PUBLIC ECONOMICS
TRINITY TERM 2019
Wednesday 7 June 2019, 09:30 - 12:30
Please start the answer to each question on a separate page.
There are 6 questions in this paper.
Answer all questions from Part A and two questions from Part B.
Part A attracts 1/3 of the marks in total; part B attracts 2/3 of the marks.
Candidates may use their own calculators.
Do not turn over until told that you may do so.
1
Part A
1. What assumptions do we need to make to be sure that it is welfare-improving to set
all commodity taxes or subsidies to zero? Do these assumptions always hold?
2. Describe the median voter theorem. Compare, for one country of your choice, the
predictions of the theorem to the actual political situation.
Part B
3. The government has decided to simplify the tax system through imposing a single
marginal tax rate and providing the same lump sum benefits to all. Explain how to
determine the optimal tax rate.
4. 5% of global deaths, and 6% of the global burden of disease, are attributable to alcohol.
How would you assess the benefits of a policy to reduce alcohol use? What might be
the costs of such a policy, even if well-designed?
5. “If a government would like to redistribute income, it should only redistribute from
those with high lifetime income to those with low lifetime income.” Discuss.
6. Consider the example of teenage children of German migrants living in the UK. There
is some likelihood that they will return to Germany at some point in the future. How
do the private and social costs and benefits of obtaining university education in the
UK differ between these teenagers and British natives of the same age? How does the
trade-off change if the likelihood of the German teenagers having or wanting to return
to Germany increases?
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A12752W1
SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION
Honour School of Philosophy, Politics and Economics
Honour School of Economics and Management
Honour School of History and Economics
PUBLIC ECONOMICS
TRINITY TERM 2018
Wednesday 30 May 2018, 09:30 - 12:30
Please start the answer to each question on a separate page.
There are 6 questions in this paper.
Answer all questions from Part A and two questions from Part B.
Part A attracts 1/3 of the marks in total; part B attracts 2/3 of the marks.
Candidates may use their own calculators.
Do not turn over until told that you may do so.
1
Part A
1. What is meant by “the social value of government revenue”? What is the “social
marginal utility of income”? How should these be related when we have linear income
tax and lump sum benefits?
2. How could we analyse the welfare implications of a given policy when agents are not
rational and selfish?
Part B
3. In the UK, household heating is taxed at 5%, while most other consumer goods are
taxed at 20%. Discuss whether this is a good policy.
4. “Rational individuals will smooth consumption over their lifetime as best suits them.
The only role for government in pension provision is to ensure that the earnings and
benefits of working-age people are high enough to allow for sufficient saving.” Discuss.
5. Should governments subsidise early-years childcare?
6. If political candidates are only motivated by being elected, under what conditions
can a two-party system achieve economic efficiency? What changes in a multi-party
system?
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A12752W1
SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION
Honour School of Philosophy, Politics, and Economics
Honour School of Economics and Management
Honour School of History and Economics
PUBLIC ECONOMICS
TRINITY TERM 2020
Thursday 18 June
Opening time 14:30 (BST)
You have 4 hours to complete the paper and upload your answer file.
Please start the answer to each question on a separate page.
There are 6 questions in this paper.
Answer all questions from Part A and two questions from Part B.
Part A attracts 1/3 of the marks in total; Part B attracts 2/3 of the marks.
The limit for essays is 1600 words, with technical material (sensibly sized diagrams
&/or equations, etc) contributing to the total at the rate of 400 words per A4 page.
Candidates may use their own calculators.
c
University of Oxford, 2020
1
Part A
1. What is the golden rule of capital in an economy in steady state? Can a PAYG pension
help to achieve it?
2. Why might a government still want to ensure production efficiency even if the first best
is not feasible? In what circumstances should production efficiency not be maintained?
Part B
3. What justifies constraining the marginal tax rate to lie between 0 and 1? In what
circumstances, and for what incomes, would you set the marginal tax rate close to
either extreme?
4. What is the “Value of a Statistical Life”? Is it possible to put a value on improvements
in health, without assuming that the lives of the chronically ill are worth less than those
of the healthy?
5. The government is considering making the amount of university tuition fees that each
student has to pay depend on their own A-level (or high school) performance.
How might the choice of education in equilibrium be affected if better performing A-
level students pay more than worse performing students? Or alternatively if worse
performing A-level students pay more than better performing ones? What happens to
the return to education with the two alternatives?
6. Should incentives to induce individuals to return to work be means tested? Should the
incentives be time limited?
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A12753W1
SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION
Honour School of Philosophy, Politics and Economics
Honour School of Economics and Management
Honour School of History and Economics
ECONOMICS OF INDUSTRY
TRINITY TERM 2019
Tuesday 4th June, 2019, 9.30-12.30
Please start the answer to each question on a separate page.
There are 8 questions in this paper.
Answer THREE questions.
Candidates may use their own calculators.
Do not turn over until told that you may do so.
1
1. (a) Discuss what theoretical factors determine the sustainability of collusion when
demand is unchanging over time.
(b) Explain carefully how theoretical models of collusion suggest demand uctua-
tions will aect rms' pricing decisions.
(c) Discuss the empirical evidence regarding the impact of demand uctuations on
pricing.
2. (a) Compare and contrast the predictions of the Bertrand and Cournot models
concerning the eect of market size on price-cost margins and rm size when
there is free entry.
(b) Does empirical evidence support these predictions?
3. Consider a Hotelling model with two rms located at either end of the line of length
1. Consumers are distributed evenly along the line, have linear transport costs, and
always buy one unit each. The price set by the rm at 0 is pA and the price set by
the rm at 1 is pB. The transport cost for the consumer located at x when buying
from the rm at 0 equals tx where t > 0. The rms have the same constant marginal
cost of production, c 0.
(a) Derive the reaction functions (i.e. best-responses), and hence show that prices
are strategic complements in this model and calculate the Nash equilibrium
prices.
(b) Now suppose that a regulator has positioned the rms at the socially ecient
locations. What are the Nash equilibrium prices now? Who gains and who
loses from the relocation of the rms? Discuss.
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4. Explain the eect of price discrimination on aggregate consumer welfare:
(a) when a monopolist practises third-degree price discrimination and total output
with and without discrimination is unchanged;
(b) when a monopolist practises third-degree price discrimination and serves two
markets, one of which is not served when the rm must set a uniform price;
(c) when duopolists located at oppposite ends of the Hotelling line are able to set
a price for each consumer that depends on the consumer's location. (There is
no need to derive the uniform-pricing Hotelling case).
5. \Advertising and cost-reducing research and development both induce imperfectly
competitive rms to increase their outputs, which is good for social welfare." Dis-
cuss.
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6. Consider a quantity-setting homogeneous goods industry where rms i = 1; : : : ; N
have marginal costs ci. Let market demand at price p be Q(p). Suppose there is
a merger of two rms in the market. Describe the conditions (if any) under which
each of the following happens, explaining your answer in each case.
(a) The merger benets consumers but not outsider rms (i.e. rms not party to
the merger).
(b) The merger benets outsider rms but not consumers.
(c) The merger benets both consumers and outsider rms (i.e. it increases con-
sumer surplus and it increases outsider rm prots).
(d) The merger benets outsider rms more than it harms consumers.
7. What does oligopoly theory (particularly Bertrand and Cournot) tell us about the
eect of market structure on prices? Discuss whether it is possible to estimate the
size of this causal eect empirically using data on prices and market structure.
8. Consider each of the following statements. In each case say whether you think the
statement is correct and explain your answer.
(a) An upstream monopolist is indierent between resale price maintenance (RPM)
and franchise fees when both demand and cost are certain.
(b) An upstream monopolist prefers RPM to franchise fees when either demand or
cost are uncertain.
(c) An upstream monopolist has no monopoly power when it sells an input to two
competing rms downstream and contracts are secret.
(d) An upstream rm cannot persuade a downstream rm to sign an exclusive
contract to exclude a more ecient rival when there is only one downstream
rm, but can do so when there are several downstream rms, each in a dierent
market.
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A12753W1
SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION
Honour School of Philosophy, Politics and Economics
Honour School of Economics and Management
Honour School of History and Economics
ECONOMICS OF INDUSTRY
TRINITY TERM 2018
Tuesday 29th May, 2018, 09.30-12.30
Please start the answer to each question on a separate page.
There are 8 questions in this paper.
Answer THREE questions.
Candidates may use their own calculators.
Do not turn over until told that you may do so.
1
1. Consider an industry with rms producing a homogeneous product. All rms have
the same constant marginal cost c. Each period rms simultaneously set prices and can
observe all prices set in the past. The rms compete for an innite number of periods and
have common discount factor . In period t, if the market price is p, demand is (t)D(p),
where (t) is a demand shock observed by all rms before they set prices.
(a) Suppose that the demand shock in period t is given by (t) = t (i.e. in period t = 1,
(t) = , in period t = 2, (t) = 2, etc.), where is a parameter and < 1. Under what
conditions can all rms setting the monopoly price be sustained as a non-cooperative
equilibrium? Interpret these conditions.
(b) Suppose now that the demand shock in period t is given by L with probability 1=2
and H with probability 1=2 each period, where L < H, independently of past periods.
Explain what degree of collusion can now be sustained.
(c) What predictions does the model of part (b) make about the eect of demand on
prices? Discuss briey what other factors may be important in predicting the eect of
demand.
(d) Now suppose that the rms compete in two identical markets of the form described
in (b). The level of demand need not be the same in the two markets in a given period
but may be correlated. How is the possibility of collusion aected in comparison to the
case when they compete in one market?
(e) Discuss briey how else competing in multiple markets may aect the possibility of
collusion between rms.
2. Discuss what determines whether rms will over- or under-invest to (i) deter, (ii)
accommodate entry. Give examples to illustrate your answer.
3. Explain who benets and who loses (relative to a benchmark of uniform pricing)
from each of the following types of price discrimination:
(a) third degree price discrimination by a monopolist,
(b) spatial price discrimination by an oligopolist,
(c) bundling by a monopolist, and
(d) inter-temporal price discrimination by a monopolist.
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4. Two rms (n = 1; 2) each sell a product with marginal cost c. Let the quality of
the product of rm n (for n = 1; 2) be written sn where s1 < s2. Let consumer surplus
be v + sn pn if rm n is chosen, where is the consumer's taste for quality, which is
distributed uniformly in the population between 0 and 1. Each consumer always buys a
product and has a unit demand.
(a) Derive an expression for the demand of each of the two products in terms of prices
and the quality dierence (s2 s1). Show that the prot function of each rm is given by
1 = [p1 c](p2 p1)=(s2 s1)
2 = [p2 c]f1 (p2 p1)=(s2 s1)g:
(b) You may assume that the prot functions in (a) imply that Nash equilibrium prices
are given by
p1 = c + (s2 s1)=3
p2 = c + 2(s2 s1)=3:
What do these prices imply about the relative market power of the two rms? Using
these prices and the prot functions in (a) show that
1 = (s2 s1)=9
2 = 4(s2 s1)=9:
(c) Given that the high-quality rm is more protable in equilibrium, does the low-quality
rm have an incentive to increase its quality to match that of the high quality rm?
(d) Compare and contrast the predictions of this model with the Hotelling model of
horizontal product dierentiation.
5. Consider a monopoly with a demand function Q(p; A) where A is the level of ex-
penditure on advertising and p is price. Let marginal costs be a constant c so that the
prot of the monopolist is given by = (p c)Q(p; A) A.
(a) Derive and discuss the Dorfman-Steiner condition for the optimal level of advertising.
(b) What eect does persuasive advertising have on the level of prices set by a monopo-
list? Is persuasive advertising socially excessive?
(c) What eect does informative advertising have on the level of prices set by a monopo-
list? Is informative advertising socially excessive?
(d) Does a change in market structure from monopoly to oligopoly change your answer
in part (c)?
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6. Consider a market for a homogeneous product. Suppose it is possible to reduce
marginal costs c by means of an innovation.
(a) Using diagrams, explain whether a monopolist that is not threatened by entry has a
lower incentive to innovate relative to one that is threatened by entry.
(b) What impact does the size of an innovation (in terms of how much it reduces marginal
cost) have on the relative incentives to innovate of an incumbent monopolist and a po-
tential entrant?
(c) When would you expect large rms to be less innovative than their smaller rivals? Is
there empirical evidence that this is the case?
7. Consider an oligopoly market for a homogeneous product.
(a) If there is no competition authority to stop it from happening, discuss whether rms
in an oligopoly would merge to monopoly.
(b) Discuss the conditions under which prices would fall when two rms in a Cournot
oligopoly merge.
(c) Discuss the conditions under which welfare increases when two rms in a Cournot
oligopoly merge.
(d) Outline the challenges faced when estimating the eect of a horizontal merger on
prices.
8. Consider a supply chain for a homogeneous product with an upstream monopolist.
(a) Compare the merits of the following vertical restraints from the perspective of the
upstream rm: (i) a franchise fee, (ii) resale price maintenance.
(b) Explain whether an upstream monopolist welcomes downstream competition when (i)
vertical contracts are public, (ii) vertical contracts are secret.
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A12753W1
SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION
Honour School of Philosophy, Politics, and Economics
Honour School of Economics and Management
Honour School of History and Economics
ECONOMICS OF INDUSTRY
TRINITY TERM 2020
Wednesday 03 June
Opening time 09:30 (BST)
You have 4 hours to complete the paper and upload your answer file.
Please start the answer to each question on a separate page.
There are 6 questions in this paper.
Answer three questions.
The limit for essays is 1600 words, with technical material (sensibly sized diagrams
&/or equations, etc) contributing to the total at the rate of 400 words per A4 page.
Candidates may use their own calculators.
c
University of Oxford, 2020
1
1. (a) Discuss with examples what determines whether a firm will over-invest or under-
invest in order (i) to deter entry, (ii) to accommodate entry.
(b) Discuss briefly whether there is evidence that firms do practise strategic entry de-
terrence.
2. Suppose that a unit mass of consumers are uniformly distributed around a circle of
circumference 1. Each consumer wishes to buy one unit of a good. If a consumer buys
the good from a firm located a distance x from her and charging a price of p she incurs
a total cost of p + tx and will buy from the firm for which this is lowest. Customers’
reservation prices are high enough that they always buy. Suppose that there are n firms
equally spaced around the circle. Each firm has constant marginal cost c.
(a) Suppose that firm i charges a price pi and all other firms charge a price of p. Find
firm i’s demand as a function of pi and p and hence find the equilibrium price in a
symmetric equilibrium.
(b) Now suppose there is free entry but firms face an entry cost of F . Those firms that
enter will be equally spaced around the circle. Find the equilibrium number of firms
and the equilibrium price under free entry.
(c) Show that if there are n firms, equally spaced around the circle, operating then total
transport costs will be t/4n and hence find the number of firms which maximizes
total consumer and producer surplus.
(d) Discuss whether it is true in general that there will be excessive entry when there
is product differentiation.
3. ‘Price discrimination is bad for overall welfare and so should be banned by competition
authorities.’
Discuss.
4. EITHER
(a) Discuss how an incumbent monopolist’s incentive to undertake process innovation
compares with that of a potential entrant to the industry.
(b) Discuss, with reference to empirical evidence, whether larger firms in an industry
are likely to be more innovative than smaller rivals.
OR
(a) How does the distinction between informative and persuasive advertising affect the
assessment of the effect of advertising on social welfare?
(b) Does empirical evidence shed light on the effect of advertising on welfare?
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5. (a) Under what circumstances will it be profitable for firms to merge under Cournot
competition?
(b) Discuss how competition authorities should evaluate the benefits of such a merger.
(c) How might competition authorities assess mergers when competition is not neces-
sarily Cournot?
6. An incumbent firm is considering whether to offer an exclusive contract to a buyer. If
the contract is rejected there will be Cournot competition between the incumbent and
an entrant (rather than Bertrand competition as is often assumed).
There are two firms, an incumbent firm with marginal cost cI and a potential entrant
with marginal cost cE = 0. There is a single buyer with inverse demand P (qI, qE) =
1 − qI − qE, where qI is the output of the incumbent and qE is the output of the entrant.
Without entry, the incumbent is a monopolist. With entry, the two firms are in Cournot
competition.
There is the following sequence of events. First, the incumbent can offer the buyer an
exclusive contract along with a payment T in return for the buyer signing the contract.
If such a contract is signed, then the buyer commits to buy from the incumbent (but
the quantity and price to be paid are not specified). Second, the buyer decides whether
to accept the contract. Everyone sees whether or not the contract was signed. Third,
the entrant enters if no contract was signed and remains inactive otherwise. There are
no entry costs. Finally, the active upstream sellers (either only the incumbent or else
both) set quantities.
(a) Explain, without performing detailed calculations, what determines (i) the most the
incumbent is willing to offer to the buyer to sign the exclusive contract, (ii) how
high T needs to be so that the buyer accepts.
(b) Suppose the two firms are equally efficient, i.e., cI = 0. Will the exclusive contract
be signed in equilibrium?
The following results are useful: Let n be the number of active firms (n ∈ {1, 2}).
Consider firm i ∈ {1, n}. Let j denote the other firm and let ci and cj denote
the marginal cost of firm i and j, respectively. The equilibrium output of firm i
is qi = 1−nci+(n−1)cj . Equilibrium profits are q2. Equilibrium consumer surplus is
n+1
i
(n−ci−(n−1)cj )2 .
2(n+1)2
(c) Will an exclusive contract be signed in equilibrium for all marginal cost levels cI ≤
1/2?
(d) Comment on the findings. In particular, describe who is harmed by the exclusive
dealing.
(e) Describe (informally) a potential change to the model such that the buyer side is
harmed by exclusive contracts.
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A12754W1
SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION
Honour School of Philosophy, Politics and Economics
Honour School of Economics and Management
Honour School of History and Economics
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS
TRINITY TERM 2019
Saturday 08 June, 09:30–12:30
Please start the answer to each question on a separate page.
There are
EIGHT questions in this paper.
Answer
THREE questions.
Candidates may use their own calculators.
Do
not turn over until told that you may do so.
1
1.
What determines the volume of trade between two countries? Is the volume of trade
explained well by theories of international trade? Relate your answer to two theories
of trade.
2.
A country with import tariffs is considering moving to unilateral free trade. What is
the likely effect of this on:
a. production in different sectors of the economy?
b. incomes in the country?
Under what circumstances would you advise the country to follow such a policy?
3.
How have increasing returns to scale, at the level of the firm and at the level of the
industry, been incorporated in the theory of international trade? What difference
does it make to the predictions of the theory?
4.
Should a country ever subsidise its exports?
5.
Discuss the short-run and long-run effects of monetary expansion on employment,
the exchange rate and the current account in a small open economy with floating
exchange rates, sticky prices and perfect international capital mobility. What can
policy makers do if they face a zero lower bound on the nominal interest rate? Does
fiscal expansion work in such a context?
6.
Explain how a currency crisis can occur in an economy with an unsustainable fiscal
policy? What factors increase the likelihood of such a crisis? Give, with
explanations, at least two reasons why currency crises can occur even in countries
with a sustainable public debt.
7.
Does the Euro-area satisfy the conditions for an optimum currency area? Explain the
merits and flaws of the convergence criteria imposed on countries seeking
membership of the Euro leading up to and after introduction of the Euro. How did
liberalizing capital flows affect the southern countries of Europe? Should something
be done about the balance of payments imbalances across Europe?
8.
Discuss the micro factors leading up to the global financial crisis of 2007/8 paying
special attention to panics and bank runs and the subprime crisis. Contrast these with
macro explanations such as excessively accommodative US monetary policy, the
global savings scarcity and the safe assets gap. What policies might make such a
crisis less likely in the future?
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A12754W1
SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION
Honour School of Philosophy, Politics and Economics
Honour School of Economics and Management
Honour School of History and Economics
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS
TRINITY TERM 2018
Thursday, 7 June 2018 – 14:30 – 17:30
Please start the answer to each question on a separate page.
There are ELEVEN questions in this paper.
Answer THREE questions.
Candidates may use their own calculators.
1
1. What would happen to the distribution of firm productivity in a country if the fixed costs of
exporting were to increase by some constant factor for every exporting firm? What would
happen to welfare?
2. Could perfect factor mobility completely offset the harmful effects on the losers from trade
expansion? Would some agents prefer higher costs of factor mobility? Explain.
3. What is the “Dutch Disease”? What are its consequences in the short and the long run?
4. “Factor price equalisation implies that in a globalising world, the income distributions of
countries will converge. Therefore many people in relatively rich countries risk losing
substantially from trade.” Discuss.
5. What is an “optimal tariff”? What factors determine the size of an “optimal tariff”? Is a tariff
always second best policy?
6. “An attempt to reduce a current account deficit by currency devaluation may be ineffective in
practice and is an undesirable objective in any case.” Discuss.
7. Is forward guidance, a promise to keep interest rates “lower for longer”, likely to be more or less
effective at boosting aggregate demand in an open economy with a floating exchange rate than
in a closed economy?
8. “In a closed economy, monetary policy works solely by changing interest rates. In an open
economy, it works solely by changing the exchange rate.” Discuss.
9. Should Eurozone fiscal rules allow larger fiscal deficits for member countries with lower
government debt to GDP ratios?
10. Could the temporary imposition of capital controls prevent currency crises without otherwise
damaging the economy?
11. Are international spillovers from monetary and fiscal policy a necessary and sufficient condition
for international policy coordination to be welfare improving?
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A12754W1
SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION
Honour School of Philosophy, Politics and Economics
Honour School of Economics and Management
Honour School of History and Economics
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS
TRINITY TERM 2020
Wednesday, 3 June
Opening time 09:30 (BST)
You have 4 hours to complete the paper and upload your answer file.
Please start the answer to each question on a separate page.
There are EIGHT questions in this paper.
Answer THREE questions.
The limit for essays is
1600 words, with technical material (sensibly sized diagrams &/or equations,
etc) contributing to the total at the rate of 400 words per A4 page.
Candidates may use their own calculators.
© University of Oxford, 2020
1
1.
A country experiences an increase in the price of its main export. What determines the
size of the supply response and the change in the country’s production structure? Who
gains and who loses from the increase?
2.
What, if any, are the benefits of attracting inwards direct investment? Do they depend on
the form of the investment? Should such investment be subsidised?
3.
Why would a country initiate a tariff war?
4.
Why might two identical countries trade? Outline circumstances in which the countries
would (a) gain and (b) lose from such trade?
5.
Explain the empirical relevance of purchasing power parity. Explain the difference
between covered and the uncovered interest parity. Consider a monetary model with full
employment, imperfect substitution between bonds and money, uncovered interest parity,
and prices slowly adjusting to purchasing power parity. Show that if the central bank
purchases bonds on the open market this leads to a temporary fall in the interest rate,
overshooting of the nominal exchange rate, and a gradual rise of the price level to its new
steady-state level.
6.
Why can the exchange rate be so volatile in an open economy with perfect capital
mobility? Illustrate by showing the effects of a monetary expansion on the exchange rate,
employment and the current account. What will be the effects if the nominal interest rate
has hit its lower bound of zero? Does fiscal expansion work in such a context?
7.
Explain what determines how quickly a speculative attack on the currency in a small open
economy occurs if government finances are unsustainable. Give some examples of
currency crises that occurred in countries whose government finances were not
unsustainable. Discuss at least two theories for why this might be the case.
8.
Explain the monetary trilemma and how this has accelerated the introduction of the Euro
after the 1992 ERM crisis. The European Union has worked on steadily removing all
barriers to flows of capital across its member states. How might this have contributed to
the financial problems of the southern countries of Europe after the global financial
crisis? What is your view on the convergence criteria for the ratio of the public deficit and
debt to GDP both before the Euro was introduced and in the aftermath of the global
financial crisis?
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A12761W1
SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION
Honour School of Philosophy, Politics and Economics
Honour School of Economics and Management
Honour School of History and Economics
GAME THEORY
TRINITY TERM 2018
Tuesday, 5th June 2018, 9:30 – 12:30
Please start the answer to each question on a separate page.
There are eight (8) questions in this paper.
Answer
four (4) questions, of which at least
one must be from Section A,
and at least
one must be from Section B.
Candidates may use their own calculators.
Please do not turn over until told that you may do so.
1
Section A
1. Consider the following two-player strategic-form game, where the row player’s
payoff is listed first:
A
B
C
A
5, 5
-1, -1
2, 6
B
-1, -1
0, 0
1, -1
C
6, 2
-1, 1
-1, -1
(a) Define what it means for a strategy to be rationalizable. Which strategies are
rationalizable for each player in this game?
[15%]
(b) Find all symmetric Nash equilibria of this game, including ones in mixed
strategies.
[40%]
(c) Construct a correlated equilibrium with two equally likely states, that is,
state space Ω = {x, y} and Pr[x] = Pr[y] = 1/2, in which each player gets an
expected payoff of 4.
[10%]
(d) Construct a correlated equilibrium with three equally likely states in which
the players’ expected payoffs are 4 1 , 41 .
[25%]
3
3
(e) Is it true that the payoffs in a symmetric correlated equilibrium are always
greater than those in all symmetric (pure or mixed) Nash equilibria? Explain.
[10%]
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2. There are two main roads connecting Oxford (Ox) and London (L): a northern
road via High Wycombe (HW) and a southern road via Reading (R). The specific
names are used for ease of reference, without geographic accuracy. Travel time on
each road section depends on x, the number of cars using the section per minute,
as indicated in the following diagram:
1+
x
HW
51+
x/10
Ox
L
R
51+
x/10
1+
x
For example, the travel time between Oxford and High Wycombe is 1 + x, where
x is the number of cars per minute using the road connecting these cities, and
the travel time between High Wycombe and London is 51 + 1 x, where x is the
10
number of cars per minute using the road connecting these cities.
Early in the morning, 60 cars per minute leave Oxford traveling to London; we
assume there are no other cars on the roads. Each driver chooses which route to
take with the goal of minimising her travel time.
(a) Describe this situation as a strategic-form game.
[20%]
(b) Find all pure-strategy Nash equilibria of the game. For each equilibrium,
compute the travel time on each of the routes.
[40%]
A new road is constructed between High Wycombe and Reading; the travel time
on this road is 10 + 1 x, where x is the number of cars per minute using the road
10
connecting High Wycombe and Reading (see the diagram below). This road is
one-way, enabling travel solely from High Wycombe to Reading.
1+
x
HW
51+
x/10
Ox
10+
x/10
L
R
51+
x/10
1+
x
(c) What are the pure Nash equilibria of the new game? For each equilibrium,
what is the travel time on each of the routes? Explain.
[40%]
TURN OVER
A12761W1
3
3. Ann is dealt a card, which is either high (H, with 50% chance), or low (L). Only
Ann observes the value of her card, but the probabilities of H and L are commonly
known. Ann may either Show her card to Bob, or Raise. If Ann chooses to Show
then she wins 1 and Bob loses 1 (in utility terms) whenever Ann’s card is high,
whereas Ann loses 1 and Bob wins 1 if her card is low. If Ann chooses to Raise
then Bob can either Pass, resulting in a payoff of 1 to Ann and −1 to Bob (no
matter what Ann’s card is), or he can Call, in which case Ann gets k and Bob −k if
Ann’s card is high, whereas Ann gets −k and Bob k if her card is low. The value
of parameter k is at least 2 and is commonly known.
(a) Represent this game in extensive form (as a game tree), and write it down
as a Bayesian game in strategic form with Ann’s payoffs contingent on her
information (type).
[25%]
(b) Determine whether the game has a pure-strategy Bayesian Nash equilib-
rium.
[10%]
(c) Does Ann have any strategy that is strictly dominated by a pure or mixed
strategy, either conditionally on her information (i.e., the type of her card),
or in ex-ante expectation (before her card is drawn)?
[15%]
(d) Find all Bayesian Nash equilibria of the game, and determine the players’
expected payoffs.
[30%]
(e) Ann choosing to Raise when her card is low may be interpreted as bluffing.
How does the probability of bluffing depend on the value of k, for k ≥ 2?
Explain the intuition.
[20%]
A12761W1
4
4. Nature chooses a state from the set {x, y, z} with equal probabilities. The fact that
each state occurs with 1/3 chance is commonly known. Player A’s information
partition is {{x}, {y, z}}, that is, she knows if the state is x, but otherwise remains
uninformed. Player B’s information partition is {{x, y}, {z}}, that is, he knows if
the state is z, but otherwise remains uninformed.
(a) Explain briefly what common knowledge means. Is any of the states com-
monly known by the players, when it occurs?
[20%]
The game that A and B play (once the state and their information have been deter-
mined) is as follows. First, A chooses either In or Out. If she chooses In (observed
by B) then B chooses In or Out as well. If either player has chosen Out then their
payoffs are (0, 0), with A’s payoff listed first. If both have chosen In then in state
x their payoffs are (−1, 1), in state y they are (3, 3), and in state z they are (1, −1).
(b) Represent this game in extensive form using a game tree, including Nature’s
moves and the decision makers’ information sets.
[20%]
(c) Find a Nash equilibrium in which each player chooses Out when it is their
turn to move, and explain why it is subgame perfect. Is there a perfect
Bayesian equilibrium (PBE) in which each player chooses Out?
[30%]
(d) Find and write down a pure-strategy PBE in which the players’ expected
payoffs (before the game starts) are (1, 1). Are there other PBE in this game?
[30%]
TURN OVER
A12761W1
5
Section B
5. Two agents bargain over splitting a pie of size 1. If agent 1 receives x1 and agent
2 receives x2 their utilities are x
ρ (where 0 ≤
1
ρ ≤ 1) and x2 respectively. If no
agreement is reached then agent 1 receives 0 and agent 2 receives d2 (0 < d2 < 1).
(a) Explain the axioms of the Nash bargaining solution.
[20%]
(b) Find the shares the agents receive in the above bargaining problem under
the Nash bargaining solution. Discuss how these shares depend on
ρ and d2.
[30%]
(c) Suppose now that
ρ = 1 and the two agents bargain over the pie according to
the following procedure. The agents alternate in proposing divisions of the
pie in periods t = 0, 1, 2, . . .. Agent 1 makes the initial offer in period t = 0
and can make subsequent offers in even periods. Agent 2 can make offers in
odd periods. If at any stage the other player accepts the proposal then the
game ends and the division is implemented. If an offer is rejected, then the
other player can make an offer in the next period. Both agents discount their
payoffs using the same discount factor
δ ∈ (0, 1), so if agent i receives xi in
period t her payoff is t
δ xi, i = 1, 2. Find the share of the pie each player will
receive in a stationary subgame-perfect equilibrium.
[25%]
(d) Suppose that the game in the previous part is modified so that if agent 2
rejects an offer by agent 1, she has the option of stopping the game before
it is her turn to make a counter-offer. If she stops the game she receives d2,
0 < d2 < 1, and agent 1 receives 0. Discuss how the payoffs of each player
will depend on d2 and compare to the predictions of the Nash bargaining
solution.
[25%]
A12761W1
6
6. (a) Explain what is meant by an Evolutionarily Stable Strategy in a symmetric
two-player game.
[10%]
(b) Determine which if any strategies are evolutionarily stable in the following
game. The row player’s payoff is listed first.
L
R
L
4, 4
0, 3
R
3, 0
3, 3
[30%]
(c) Explain what is meant by the replicator dynamic in a symmetric game played
by a single population. Write down the replicator dynamic for the game in
the previous part and discuss how play evolves under it.
[20%]
(d) Suppose that the game in part (b) is played by a finite population of fixed
size. Each player in the population plays either L or R. Each period one of the
players has the opportunity to revise their strategy, with all players equally
likely to be chosen for this opportunity. With probability 1 −
e the chosen
player chooses a best reply to the distribution of strategies in the population,
with probability
e she chooses each strategy with probability 1/2. If
e is small
but positive, explain carefully how you would expect the system to evolve in
the long run. Interpret and comment on your answer.
[30%]
(e) Discuss briefly whether evolutionary models yield useful insights in appli-
cations of game theory to economics.
[10%]
TURN OVER
A12761W1
7
7. Firm A and firm B play the following multi-stage investment game: First, firm
A decides whether or not to invest in a particular asset. If firm A does not invest
then the game ends and each firm earns zero profit. If firm A invests, then (and
only then) firm B may either invest or not invest, the latter resulting in a loss of 2
for firm A and zero profit for firm B. If firm B chooses to invest after A has done
so, then firm A may either appropriate (steal) the asset, yielding a profit of 6 to
firm A and a loss of 2 to firm B, or share it, yielding a profit of 2 for each firm.
Each firm is risk neutral, maximizing its own expected profit.
(a) Model this situation as a game in extensive form (game tree) and find all of
its subgame perfect equilibria.
[20%]
In what follows, assume that firm A is one of two possible types: either normal
(with probability 3/4), with the payoffs as set out above, or cooperative (with
probability 1/4), which is hard-wired to make the initial investment and then
share the asset if both firms have invested.
(b) Draw the extensive form of this game, carefully denoting Nature’s moves
and information sets, as appropriate.
[15%]
(c) Denote by
µ firm B’s belief that firm A is a cooperative type upon seeing
that firm A has made the initial investment. Show that firm B weakly prefers
investing over not investing if and only if
µ ≥ 1/2.
[15%]
(d) Prove that in any perfect Bayesian equilibrium (PBE) of the game the nor-
mal type of firm A must mix between making and not making the initial
investment.
[20%]
(e) Complete the derivation of the PBE of the game and interpret.
[30%]
A12761W1
8
8. Consider the following strategic-form game with three players: P1 chooses row,
P2 chooses column, P3 chooses matrix; payoffs are listed in the order P1, P2, P3.
a
b
a
b
A
4, 4, 4
0, 10, 0
A
-1, -1, 1
-1, 0, 1
B
10, 0, 0
3, 1, 2
B
0, 1, 1
1, 3, 2
L
R
(a) Find all pure-strategy Nash equilibria of this game.
[10%]
(b) Find each player’s minmax payoff and the strategies of the others (as well as
their own best replies) that achieve these payoffs.
[20%]
(c) Suppose the game is played finitely many times; players add up their payoffs
over time without discounting. Explain how playing (A, a, L) in all but the
last 6 periods can be sustained in a subgame perfect equilibrium.
[25%]
(d) Suppose the game is played infinitely many times and players maximize
their discounted total payoffs using discount factor
δ. Construct a subgame
perfect equilibrium using Nash-reversion trigger strategies (strategies that
revert to playing some stage-game Nash equilibrium forever upon a devia-
tion), that sustains (A, a, L) in every period for any
δ ≥ 2/3.
[20%]
(e) Suppose the game is played infinitely many times and players maximize
their discounted total payoffs with discount factor
δ. Construct a subgame
perfect equilibrium that sustains (A, a, L) in every period for
δ close to, but
strictly less than, 2/3.
[25%]
LAST PAGE
A12761W1
9
A12761W1
SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION
Honour School of Philosophy, Politics and Economics
Honour School of Economics and Management
Honour School of History and Economics
GAME THEORY
TRINITY TERM 2020
Tuesday 9 June
Opening time 09:30 (BST)
You have 4 hours to complete the paper and upload your answer file.
Please start the answer to each question on a separate page.
There are eight (8) questions in this paper.
Answer
four (4) questions, of which at least
one must be from Section A,
and at least
one must be from Section B.
For multipart questions, the weight assigned to each part is indicated in square brackets.
The limit for essays is 1,600 words, with technical material
(sensibly sized diagrams, equations, etc.)
contributing to the total at the rate of 400 words per A4 page.
Candidates may use their own calculators.
c
, University of Oxford, 2020
1
Section A
1. Suppose the set of players is N = [0, 1]. That is, there are infinitely many players.
Each player j chooses an action sj 2 {0, 1}; mixed actions are not allowed. Players
want to “match” the average action chosen by the other players but also want
their action to be close to
t, which is either 0 or 1 (commonly known). Formally,
the payoff to a player who chooses sj 2 {0, 1} when a proportion m of the other
players choose s = 1 equals
10
(1
l) · (sj
m)2
l · (sj
t)2
where
l 2 (0, 1) is the weight players put on choosing an action that is closest to
t. Parameters
t 2 {0, 1} and
l 2 (0, 1) are common knowledge.
(a) For all possible values of
t and
l, find all values of m such that a (pure-
strategy) Nash equilibrium exists in which exactly a proportion m of the
players choose s = 1.
[45%]
Suppose that the players are all employees in a company. Their manager would
prefer that the players choose s = 1; specifically, her payoff equals the lowest m
such that there exists a Nash equilibrium in which exactly a proportion m of the
players play s = 1. Thus, if the set of Nash equilibria is such that a proportion
m 2 {m1, m2, m3} with m1 < m2 < m3 may choose s = 1 in some equilibrium,
then the manager’s payoff equals m1.
(b) What is the manager’s payoff, depending on
l and
t? Would it be strictly
profitable for her to change the (commonly known) value of
t from 0 to 1?
[10%]
Assume
t = 0 from now on, and that the manager cannot change it. However,
she can choose any proportion
n 2 (0, 1) of the players whose payoff from sj = 1
will increase by 1.5 to
11.5
(1
l) · (1
m)2
l
without changing their payoff from sj = 0 or any other player’s payoffs.
(c) Suppose that the manager modifies the payoffs for a proportion
n 2 (0, 1) of
players in this way. How does this affect the behavior of the players whose
payoffs are modified?
[15%]
(d) Suppose that the cost of modifying the payoffs for a proportion
n 2 (0, 1) of
players this way costs 1.5
n in terms of the manager’s expected payoff. Would
the manager find it profitable to change the payoffs of a proportion of players
this way for, say,
l = 17? Explain.
[30%]
A12761W1
2
2. Countries R (“Row”) and C (“Column”) are at war with each other. Country R’s
army can strike one (and only one) of three possible targets, cities 1, 2, and 3
in country C. Country C’s army can defend one (and only one) of the cities. If
country R strikes city m, then city m is destroyed if and only if it is undefended
by C. If R strikes city m and it is undefended (and hence destroyed), R receives a
payoff of vm > 0 while country C receives vm. If R strikes city m but does not
destroy it (because it is defended by C), both countries earn a payoff of 0. City 1
is most valuable to both countries and city 3 is the least valuable: v1 > v2 > v3.
(a) What are the strategies for the players (countries)? What is the payoff matrix
of this game?
[15%]
Let (p1, p2, p3; q1, q2, q3) be a Nash equilibrium, where pi
0, i = 1, 2, 3, is the
probability that R attacks city i (so Âi pi = 1) and qi
0 is the probability that C
defends city i (so Âi qi = 1).
(b) Show that the game does not have a pure-strategy Nash equilibrium. [15%]
(c) For i = 1, 2, prove that if pi = 0 (that is, R does not attack city i), then pi+1 = 0
(that is, R does not attack city i + 1 either).
[20%]
(d) Use the previous result to show that there is no mixed Nash equilibrium in
which exactly cities 1 and 3 are attacked with positive probabilities; that is,
p1, p3 > 0 with p1 + p3 = 1 is impossible. Also show that there is no mixed
Nash equilibrium in which exactly cities 2 and 3 are attacked with positive
probabilities (p2, p3 > 0 with p2 + p3 = 1 is impossible as well).
[15%]
The results established so far imply that in any Nash equilibrium, either all three
cities are attacked with positive probabilities or only cities 1 and 2 are attacked
with positive probabilities.
(e) Characterize the conditions under which there is a Nash equilibrium in which
only cities 1 and 2 are attacked with positive probabilities (i.e., p1, p2 > 0,
p1 + p2 = 1).
[15%]
(f) Characterize the conditions under which there is a Nash equilibrium in which
all cities are attacked (i.e., p1, p2, p3 > 0).
[20%]
TURN OVER
A12761W1
3
3. There are two armies. Both armies want to conquer an island. Either army can be
weak or strong. Each army is weak or strong with 50-50% chance, independent
of the strength of the other army. Each army knows whether it is weak or strong,
but it does not know whether the other army is weak or strong.
Each army can choose whether to attack the island or not. Not attacking always
gives a payoff of 0.
The payoff of an army that decides to attack depends on whether or not it is able
to conquer the island and whether or not its rival attacks. An army conquers the
island if it attacks and either (1) its rival does not attack, or (2) the army is strong
and its rival is weak. Note that if both armies attack and they are either both
weak or both strong then neither conquers the island. Conquering the island
gives a payoff M > 0. However, if the army’s rival also attacks the island, the
army needs to fight. Fighting has a cost s for a strong army and a cost w for a
weak army (independent of the strength of its rival). Fighting is more costly for
a weak army: w > s > 0.
(a) Describe precisely the armies’ as players’ strategies and their type-contingent
expected payoffs in the strategic form of this Bayesian game, treating an
army’s strength as its type.
[25%]
(b) If M > max{2s, w} then characterize all pure-strategy Bayesian Nash equi-
libria (BNE) of the game.
[15%]
(c) Under what conditions on M, w and s is there a unique BNE allowing only
pure strategies, such that this equilibrium is symmetric (meaning that both
players use the same strategy)?
[20%]
(d) Derive all pure-strategy Bayesian Nash equilibria depending on the values
of M, w and s.
[40%]
A12761W1
4
4. Two firms produce the same product whose price in period t = 0, 1, . . . , 9 is
Pt(Qt) = 10 t Qt or 0, whichever is greater, where Qt is the total output in
period t. Note that the price can never be negative.
In each period, firm i either produces a quantity equal to its fixed capacity or
nothing. Once a firm exits, producing 0 at a given t, it cannot re-enter: it has to
produce 0 at all t0 > t. The firms have identical unit costs, c = 0.99 per unit
produced, but different capacities: k1 = 4 and k2 = 2, respectively. For instance,
if both firms operate at t = 0 then the price is 10 6 = 4; the firms’ revenues are
16 and 8, whereas their costs are 4c and 2c, respectively. The values of c, k1 and k2
are commonly known. A firm’s profit in period t is simply the difference between
its revenue and cost in period t.
In each period, the firms decide individually and simultaneously whether to pro-
duce (at capacity) or exit for good; past actions are observable to both firms. Each
firm’s continuation payoff at t, which it maximizes at t, is the undiscounted sum
of its profits at and after t. There are no fixed costs; a firm that exits at t makes
zero profit at t and in every period thereafter.
(a) Describe precisely but succinctly the firms’ possible strategies. (You are not
required to list all strategies.)
[15%]
(b) Let ti denote the last period in which firm i makes a strictly positive profit
by producing its capacity provided the other firm is no longer operating.
Determine the values of t1 and t2 and explain what firm i’s strategy specifies
in any subgame-perfect equilibrium (SPE) at every t > ti.
[15%]
(c) Explain what firm 2’s strategy specifies in any SPE in periods t = t1 + 1, . . . .
Explain whether firm 2’s strategy in any SPE at t
t1 + 1 is contingent on
firm 1’s behaviour observed before t.
[15%]
(d) What is firm 2’s best response at t = t1 to firm 1’s action at t1? Find out what
each firm’s SPE strategy specifies at t = t1.
[15%]
(e) Complete the analysis of the unique SPE of the game for all t < t1. Describe
the SPE strategies precisely.
[20%]
(f) Outline how the analysis in parts (b)–(d) changes if the firms’ unit cost is
c0 = 1.99. Do not complete the derivation of all subgame-perfect equilibria
in this case.
[20%]
TURN OVER
A12761W1
5
Section B
5. (a) Explain what is meant by the Nash Bargaining solution and state Nash’s ax-
ioms which characterize it.
[10%]
(b) Give an example of a different solution to the bargaining problem which
satisfies all but one of Nash’s axioms and explain why it satisfies them. [10%]
A union and a firm bargain over the number of the workers, L, the firm will
employ and the wage, w, to be paid to each worker employed. L may be treated
as continuous. If a worker is not employed she receives her reservation wage, R.
The union wishes to maximize the welfare of its members, wL + R(L L), where
L is its total number of members.
The firm wishes to maximize its profits f (L) wL, where f is twice continuously
differentiable, increasing and concave. If no agreement is reached, the firm re-
ceives zero profits and all union members receive their reservation wage.
(c) Write down the first-order conditions for the Nash Bargaining solution for w
and L, assuming that 0 < L < L, and show that they imply that
1 f
w
(L)
=
+ f 0(L)
2
L
f 0(L) = R
Comment on these equations.
[30%]
(d) Suppose now that f (L) =
qL
a, with 0 <
a < 1. Using the results of the previ-
ous part show that w = R(
a + 1)/2
a and find an expression for L. Comment
on your results.
[20%]
(e) Suppose instead that bargaining proceeds as follows: first, the union makes
a take or leave it offer of a wage, w, to the firm. If the firm accepts then it
chooses L and pays w to all the workers it hires. If the firm rejects the union’s
offer then it receives zero profits and all union members their reservation
wage. If f (L) = 2L1/2 find the equilibrium values of w and L. You may
again assume that 0 < L < L. Comment on your results.
[30%]
A12761W1
6
6. (a) Explain carefully what is meant by an Evolutionarily Stable Strategy in a
symmetric two-player game.
[10%]
(b) Determine which if any strategies are evolutionarily stable in the following
game:
L
R
L a, a 0, c
R c, 0 b, b
where the row player’s payoff is listed first, 0 < b < a and 0 < c < a. [20%]
(c) Explain what is meant by the replicator dynamic in a symmetric game played
by a single population and discuss when it might predict the evolution of
play well. Write down the replicator dynamic for the game in the previous
part and discuss how play evolves under it.
[20%]
(d) Now suppose that the game in part (b) is played by a finite population of
fixed size. Each player in the population plays either L or R. Each period
one of the players has the opportunity to revise their strategy, with all play-
ers equally likely to be chosen for this opportunity. With probability 1
# the
chosen player chooses a best reply to the distribution of strategies in the pop-
ulation, with probability
# she chooses each strategy with probability 1/2. If
# is small but positive, explain carefully how you would expect the system to
evolve in the long run.
Discuss whether these results help predict play in this game in an economic
context.
[50%]
TURN OVER
A12761W1
7
7. Two pharmaceutical companies are racing to discover the cure to a novel illness.
Each company operates in a different part of the world and has private informa-
tion about the value of patenting the potential discovery in its own region.
For i = 1, 2, company i’s estimate of a patent’s value in its own region is vi.
Assume that v1 and v2 are independent random draws from the uniform distri-
bution on [0, 1]. Each company may invest a non-negative amount into trying to
find the cure; whichever company invests more discovers the cure first.
First, assume that the company that discovers the cure first gets the value of the
patent in its own region. The company that loses the patent race gets no reward
and loses the amount invested.
Denote company i’s investment level by bi. Assume that in equilibrium firms use
the same quadratic investment function: b⇤i =
bv2i for i = 1, 2 with
b > 0.
(a) Verify that company i’s expected profit from investing bi with true patent
valuation vi, when its competitor, company j 6= i, follows the equilibrium
strategy b⇤j =
bv2j, is
s b
U
i
i(bi, vi) =
vi bi.
[15%]
b
(b) Derive the Bayesian-Nash equilibrium value of
b with companies maximiz-
ing their expected profit.
[20%]
Second, assume that there is an imperfect enforcement of patents across regions,
and as a result the company that discovers the cure first gets the average of the
patent’s value in both regions. That is, when i wins it gets ¯v = (vi + vj)/2, where
j 6= i. The losing firm gets no reward and loses its investment.
Denote company i’s investment by ci. Assume that in equilibrium firms use the
same quadratic investment function, c⇤i =
gv2i for i = 1, 2 with
g > 0.
(c) Write down company i’s expected profit from investing ci with true signal
value vi, when its competitor, company j 6= i, follows the equilibrium strat-
egy, and find the Bayesian-Nash equilibrium value of
g.
[45%]
(d) Assume that society benefits from more total spending on pharmaceutical
research (as there are positive externalities), and it also puts some weight on
the profits of pharmaceutical companies from holding patents. Based on the
above stylized model, which regime is better: regional patenting (yielding
the equilibrium in part b), or imperfect world-wide patenting (yielding the
equilibrium in part c)? Explain.
[20%]
A12761W1
8
8. Alice and Bob play the following stage game; the analysis will involve its repeti-
tion over several periods.
Each player starts the stage game with a budget of 2 payoff units. Simultaneously,
each may either “enable” a donation to the other (action E) or not (action N). En-
abling a donation to the other reduces the player’s own payoff by 1 and increases
the other’s payoff by 2; this is in addition to any change that the other’s action
may induce in their payoffs. Action N does not affect payoffs. Alice (but not Bob)
has a third option: instead of E and N she may play action D (“destroy”), which
makes both players lose everything they could have earned in the stage game –
that is, the stage-game payoff of each player is reset to zero.
(a) Write down the normal form of the stage game (hint: it is simply a 3x2 table)
and find all of its Nash equilibria.
[10%]
(b) Derive (not just assert) each player’s minmax payoff and plot the set of fea-
sible and individually rational payoffs of the stage game.
[15%]
In what follows, assume that the stage game is repeated infinitely many times.
Players observe all past actions. Each player maximizes the discounted sum of
his or her stage-game payoffs using discount factor
d 2 (0, 1).
(c) What are the lowest and highest sums of the players’ per-period payoffs that
can be sustained in a subgame-perfect equilibrium (SPE) of the infinitely-
repeated game for
d close to 1? Explain.
[15%]
(d) Construct a SPE for
d sufficiently close to 1 such that both players choose E
in every period on the equilibrium path. What is the lowest
d for which there
exists a SPE (not just the one you constructed) that induces (E, E) in every
period? Explain.
[20%]
(e) Construct a SPE for
d = 0.75 in which Alice plays N and Bob plays E in every
period on the equilibrium path.
[20%]
(f) What is the lowest
d such that (N, E) in every period (on the equilibrium
path) can be sustained in some SPE of the infinitely-repeated game? Explain
whether this is different from the lowest
d found in part (d), and why. [20%]
LAST PAGE
A12761W1
9
A15536W1
SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION
Honour School of Philosophy, Politics and Economics
Honour School of Economics and Management
Honour School of History and Economics
MICROECONOMIC ANALYSIS
TRINITY TERM 2019
Thursday 30 May, 09:30–12:30
Please start the answer to each question on a separate page.
There are 6 questions in this paper.
Answer four questions.
For multipart questions, the weight assigned to each part is indicated in square brackets.
Candidates may use their own calculators.
Do not turn over until told that you may do so.
1
2 1 1
1. (a) Consider the matrix A = 1 2 1 .
1 1 2
(i) Show that 1 and 4 are eigenvalues of A and find the corresponding collections of
all (non-null) eigenvectors associated with each of them.
[20%]
(ii) Construct a matrix V such that V −1AV = D, a diagonal matrix.
Hence or otherwise, compute A6.
[20%]
(b) Consider the space R4.
Suppose that the non-null vector u1 is independent of the non-null vector u2, and
suppose also that the non-null vector v1 is independent of the non-null vector v2.
Prove that these four vectors form a basis of R4 if and only if the intersection of
the span of {u1, u2} and the span of {v1, v2} is equal to the null vector.
[20%]
(c) Consider the function
(
xy(x2−y2)
if (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
f (x, y) =
x2+y2
0
otherwise
Note that when (x, y) 6= (0, 0), the partial derivatives are fx(x, y) = y x4−y4+4x2y2
(x2+y2)2
and fy(x, y) = x x4−y4−4x2y2 .
(x2+y2)2
(i) What is the value of fx(0, y) when y 6= 0? And of fy(x, 0) when x 6= 0?
Use the definition of partial derivatives to compute fx(0, 0) and fy(0, 0) formally.
Comment very briefly.
[20%]
(ii) Show that the Hessian matrix of f at the origin is
0 −1 .
1
0
What can you infer about the second-order partial derivatives of f from the
asymmetry of this matrix?
[20%]
A15536W1
2
2. (a) State briefly the role played by concave and convex functions in optimisation.
Does it matter if the function in question is not differentiable?
[15%]
(b) By examining the Hessian, or otherwise, determine whether the following function
is concave, convex, or neither, noting the dependence of your answer on c > 0:
f (x, y) = x2 + y2 − c xy.
[15%]
(c)
• Find the global minimum of the function
f (x, y) = x2 + y2 − xy.
• When the domain of f is restricted to the set
{(x, y) : −4 ≤ x ≤ 4, −4 ≤ y ≤ 4},
are there any other local minima?
• If we further restrict the domain of f to the boundary of that set, namely
{(x, y) : x2 = 16, −4 ≤ y ≤ 4} ∪ {(x, y) : −4 ≤ x ≤ 4, y2 = 16},
does the answer change?
[30%]
(d) Write down the Lagrangian when the problem is to maximise the function
f (x, y) = x2 + y2 − xy
on the set
{(x, y) : −4 ≤ x ≤ 4, −4 ≤ y ≤ 4}.
Use the Kuhn-Tucker first-order conditions to identify all the candidate local max-
ima, and determine which of them are indeed local maxima.
[40%]
A15536W1
3
turn over
3. Consider an economy with two consumers, a and b, whose preferences are given by
√
√
Ua = xa + 4 ya,
Ub = 2 xb + yb
Normalize prices so that px = 1 and py = p.
(a) Suppose that each consumer i = a, b has income mi > 0.
Derive the demand functions of the two consumers.
[25%]
(b) Suppose that the overall endowment in the economy is given by ω = (3, 5).
Derive the set of feasible Pareto-optimal allocations (expressed in terms of xa and
ya) and clearly mark it in an Edgeworth box.
[25%]
(c) Suppose that the initial allocation is ωa = (3, 3), ωb = (0, 2).
What is the Walrasian equilibrium of the economy?
[25%]
(d) Suppose that the government can freely reallocate both goods between consumers,
and consider an allocation (xa, ya) = (0, 1), (xb, yb) = (3, 4).
What are the marginal rates of substitution for the two consumers at this point?
Can the government implement this allocation as a Walrasian equilibrium?
Explain your answer.
[25%]
A15536W1
4
4. A risk-averse expected-utility maximizer with a strictly increasing utility function u has
initial wealth Y , but faces the risk of a financial loss of L < Y with probability π.
An insurance company offers to cover the entire loss at a premium M > πL; however,
it is also possible to take out partial cover pro rata, so that a portion βL of the loss can
be covered at cost of βM , where 0 ≤ β ≤ 1.
(a) Show that the agent’s objective may be rewritten as
max V (α)
where V (α) = E [u(w + α˜
x)] ,
α
with w ≡ Y − M , α ≡ 1 − β, and ˜
x being a random variable that takes the value
M with probability (1 − π) and the value M − L with probability π.
[20%]
(b) Find the conditions that determine β∗, the optimal value of β.
Provide a formal argument and explain intuitively why β∗ < 1.
[40%]
(c) Assuming that she takes out some cover (i.e. β∗ > 0), derive the formula that shows
how β∗ changes as Y increases while all other parameters remain the same.
What additional assumption do you need to make in order to show that the sign of
the change in β∗ is unambiguous?
Is this assumption plausible?
[40%]
A15536W1
5
turn over
5. There is a single risk-neutral profit-maximising firm, and two types of worker: L and
H, with λ denoting the fraction of H-types.
Any worker that is hired exerts observable effort e ≥ 0, at a cost (in monetary terms)
of g(e, θ) = e/θ, where θ = θL or θH, with 0 < θL < θH. The utility of such a worker
who receives a wage w is w − g(e, θ), and his reservation utility is 0. The net profit of
the firm from hiring that worker is the gross profit of π(e) = 2e1/2, less the wage w. A
contract consists of a wage-effort pair such as (wL, eL) and (wH, eH).
(a) If θ were public information (but revealed only after the contract is signed), explain
why the firm would choose effort levels that satisfy the first-order conditions
π0(eH) = ge(eH, θH)
and
π0(eL) = ge(eL, θL)
and set wages wH = g(eH, θH), wL = g(eL, θL).
What are the optimal contracts (w∗ , e∗ ) and (w∗ , e∗ )?
H
H
L
L
[35%]
(b) Now assume that θ is private information, known to each worker before he accepts
a contract.
(i) How does the Revelation Principle help the firm to restrict the form of contracts
that will be offered?
Write down the firm’s objective function and its constraints.
(ii) Show that the Participation constraint of the H-type is redundant whenever the
Participation constraint of the L-type and the Incentive Compatibility constraint
of the H-type are both satisfied.
Argue that the firm can reduce wH and wL so that those latter two constraints
bind, i.e. are satisfied as equalities. (This allows you to replace wH and wL in
the firm’s objective function by expressions involving eH, θH, eL, and θL.)
(iii) Temporarily ignore the Incentive Compatibility constraint of the L-type, and
derive the first-order conditions (FOCs) for eH and eL from the firm’s rewritten
objective function.
Hence or otherwise, show that the optimal effort level ˆ
eH is the same as e∗ from
H
part (a), and that the optimal effort level eL = ˆ
eL satisfies
λ
π0(eL) = ge(eL, θL) +
[ge(eL, θL) − ge(eL, θH)] .
1 − λ
−
Show that the above FOC implies that ˆ
e 1/2 > θ−1, and hence that ˆ
e
.
L
L
L < e∗
L
Is the wage of the H-types, ˆ
wH, greater than, equal to, or less than w∗ ?
H
What about the wage of the L-types, ˆ
wL, with reference to w∗ ?
L
(iv) In this problem, the Incentive Compatibility constraint that was temporarily
ignored is equivalent to g(ˆ
eH, θL) − g(ˆ
eL, θL) ≥ g(ˆ
eH, θH) − g(ˆ
eL, θH).
(You do not need to prove this.)
Show that this is indeed satisfied as a strict inequality.
[65%]
A15536W1
6
6. Consider a financial economy that lasts two periods (today and tomorrow), with a single
consumption good. There are three possible states of the world tomorrow.
There are two agents, a and b, and they have identical utility functions
u(x0, x1, x2, x3) = x0 (x1 x2 x3)1/3,
where x0 is an agent’s consumption today, and x1, x2, x3 denote his consumption to-
morrow in each of the three possible states.
The endowment of agent a is ωa = (1, 1, 1, 0), so he has one unit of consumption at
date 0, one unit at date 1 in states 1 & 2, and no units at date 1 in state 3; similarly,
that of agent b is ωb = (1, 1, 0, 1).
Normalize the price of the consumption good today so that p0 = 1.
(a) Assume there is a single tradable asset in the economy, a risk-free bond that has a
payoff of 1 tomorrow regardless of the state.
What can be said about competitive equilibrium in this economy?
[25%]
(b) Suppose that the financial authority wants to implement a Pareto-efficient allocation
using the minimal number of financial instruments.
How many securities does it need?
[25%]
(c) Given your answer to previous part, specify the payoffs for each of the required
securities, derive the security prices and the resulting allocation.
[50%]
A15536W1
7
last page
A15536W1
SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION
Honour School of Philosophy, Politics and Economics
Honour School of Economics and Management
Honour School of History and Economics
MICROECONOMIC ANALYSIS
TRINITY TERM 2018
Thursday 7th June 2018, 09:30 - 12:30
Please start the answer to each question on a separate page.
There are 6 questions in this paper.
Answer four questions.
For multipart questions, the weight assigned to each part is indicated in square brackets.
Candidates may use their own calculators.
Do not turn over until told that you may do so.
1
−1
3
1
−6
1. (a) Consider u1 = 2 , u2 = 1 , u3 = 5 and u4 = 5 .
1
2
4
1
(i) Calculate the rank of the matrix formed by these vectors.
Do the vectors span R3 or not?
[30%]
−5
Define the vector vα = 3 , which depends on the parameter α.
α
(ii) For which values of α is vα in the span of the vectors u1, u2, u3 and u4, and for
which values of α is it not?
For each of the cases where vα is in the span of the vectors, find coefficients that
allow you to write vα as a linear combination of u1, u2, u3 and u4.
[20%]
(iii) Is it possible to form a basis of R3 by selecting some subset of the vectors
{u1, u4, v0, v1}?
Which of them must be used?
[10%]
(b) Consider the function f : R2 → R given by
(x − y)2
f (x, y) =
whenever (x, y) 6= (0, 0),
and f (0, 0) = 1.
x2 + y2
Determine whether or not the function has partial derivatives everywhere.
Is the function differentiable? Is it of class C1?
Explain how to apply the implicit function theorem to the system f (x, y) = 1 at
the origin, or explain why this is not possible.
[40%]
A15536W1
2
2. (a) (i) Write down the inequality that a real-valued function must satisfy for it to be
concave. State briefly the role played by concave functions in optimisation.
(ii) Let f : Rn → R and g : Rn → R be concave functions. For each of the following,
either show that function is concave, or provide a counter-example:
• f + g
• f − g
• f g
[20%]
(b) By examining their Hessians, or otherwise, determine whether the following func-
tions are concave on the domains on which they are defined.
(Assume that α > 0 & β > 0, but note any additional dependence of your answer
on α & β, and also on k.)
(i) f (x, y) = α ln x + β ln y
(ii) g(x, y) = xαyβ
(iii) h(x, y) = −2x2 + kxy − 3y2
[30%]
(c) A consumer has a utility function δ ln x + (1 − δ) ln y with 0 < δ < 1, and a budget
constraint px x + py y ≤ m, with px > 0, py > 0, and m > 0.
(i) Explain briefly why non-negativity constraints will not bind.
(ii) Write down the Kuhn-Tucker first-order conditions for the consumer.
(iii) What are her optimal choices x∗ and y∗?
Two consumers A and B have utility functions
uA(x, y) = 4 ln x + ln y,
uB(x, y) = 2 ln x + 3 ln y,
and there are two constraints, a financial constraint (F) and a time constraint (T)
(F):
2x + y ≤ 100,
(T):
2x + 3y ≤ 180.
(iv) What are their optimal choices if only the financial constraint is imposed?
What if only the time constraint is imposed?
Under which single constraint, (F) or (T), is each of them better off, and why?
(v) Suppose that initially only the time constraint is imposed, and then the financial
constraint is added.
Which of them is made worse off by the addition of the financial constraint?
(vi) Finally, suppose that initially only the financial constraint is imposed, and then
the time constraint is added.
Which of them is now made worse off?
What relaxation of the second (time) constraint, in terms of allowing more time,
would make the disadvantaged consumer as well off as they were when only the
first (financial) constraint was in place?
Would such a relaxation also benefit the other consumer?
[50%]
A15536W1
3
turn over
3. (a) Define the Gross Substitute Property (GSP) for excess demand functions.
[10%]
(b) Suppose that there are L goods in the economy. Each consumer a has an endowment
wa 0, but for each consumer there is one good such that at any price the consumer
spends all her wealth on that good. (Suppose that for any good there is at least one
consumer that consumes that good.)
(i) What is the excess demand of a consumer that spends all her wealth on good ` ?
(ii) Show that the aggregate excess demand of this economy has the GSP.
[35%]
(c) The aggregate excess demand function satisfies the Weak Axiom at Equilibrium
(WAE) if
for any p, p0 such that Z(p) = 0 and Z(p0) 6= 0, it is the case that p Z(p0) > 0.
Suppose that L = 2, so there are only two goods in the economy, and that the
consumers’ utility functions are continuous, strongly monotonic and strictly quasi-
concave.
Show that if the aggregate excess demand function has the GSP, then it satisfies
the WAE.
[30%]
(d) Show that if the aggregate excess demand function satisfies the WAE then the set
of equilibrium prices is convex.
[25%]
A15536W1
4
4. (a) Consider choices over lotteries with three possible monetary outcomes, 1, 2 and 3, de-
noted by L = (p1, p2, p3), where outcome k occurs with probability pk. Consider the
probability simplex where such lotteries are represented in two-dimensional space,
namely the usual equilateral triangle with vertices 1, 2, 3, in which pk is the distance
from the edge opposite outcome k.
(For the following questions it is enough to give the answer graphically using a
simplex diagram, along with a brief explanation.)
(i) If two lotteries have the same mean, what are their positions relative to each
other in the probability simplex?
(ii) Given a lottery L, determine the region of the simplex comprising the lotteries
whose distributions are mean-preserving spreads of L.
(iii) Given a lottery L, describe the indifference curve passing through the point
representing L of an agent whose preferences satisfy expected utility theory and
who is risk neutral.
What is the slope of the indifference curve at the point representing L? (A
numerical answer is not required.)
How does this slope compare with the slope (at L) of the indifference curve that
obtains in the case where the agent is risk averse, i.e. is the slope larger, smaller
or the same?
Justify your answer on the basis of your answer to part (a.ii).
[60%]
(b) Suppose that a person can work at a random hourly wage ˜
w (always strictly pos-
itive), with mean ¯
w (the person might work on a commission basis, for example).
The money earned is used to buy a single consumption good with price 1. Let the
utility from working x hours and consuming c units be U (c, x) = u(c) − x, where u
is a strictly increasing, strictly concave differentiable function. The person decides
on how many hours to work so as to maximise expected utility.
(i) Denote by V (x) the expected utility as a function of the number of hours worked.
Write down V (x) in terms of x, ˜
w and u.
Write down the first-order condition for the maximisation.
Show that the relevant second-order condition holds.
(ii) Assume that u(c) = 2c1/2.
Will the person work less or more when the wage becomes riskier? Explain.
[40%]
A15536W1
5
turn over
5. There is a project that a risk-averse agent must undertake. If the project is a success,
then her final wealth will be 81; if it is a failure, then her final wealth will be 0. There
are two possible effort levels that she can exert, low (e = 0) or high (e = 1): if e = 0,
the probability of success is 1 , whereas if e = 1, the probability of success is 2 .
3
3
√
The agent’s utility from ending with wealth w having exerted effort e is
w − 2e, and
she has no outside option.
(a) Show that the agent will choose to exert high effort, and so her reservation utility
is effectively 4.
[15%]
Now assume that there is a single risk-neutral principal that can insure the agent, and
that the success or failure of the project is public information.
When effort is observable (& contractible), he offers the agent a contract of the form:
“If you exert effort e∗, then if the project succeeds you give me s, but if it fails I give
you f ; if you exert any other effort level there will be no transfers.”
(b) Show that the insurer will choose e∗ = 1.
What transfers will he specify?
[25%]
When effort is non-observable, the principal offers the agent a contract of the form: “If
the project succeeds you give me s, but if it fails I give you f .”
(c) What transfers would induce the agent to exert high effort?
What contract will the insurer now offer to the agent?
What level of effort will the agent exert?
Comment briefly.
[60%]
A15536W1
6
6. Consider a two-date financial economy with two states at the second date. There are
two agents A and B that can consume only non-negative quantities at every date and
state. Suppose that agent A’s utility function is
U A(x0, x1, x2) = ln(1 + x0) + 2 ln(1 + x1) + ln(1 + x2),
where x0 denotes the agent’s consumption at date 0 and xi denotes the consumption
at date 1 in state i. Agent B’s utility is given by
U B(x0, x1, x2) = ln(1 + x0) + ln(1 + x1) + 2 ln(1 + x2).
(a) Suppose A’s endowment is (1, 0, 0) (in other words, he has one unit of consumption
at date 0 and none at date 1, whatever the state), and B’s endowment is (0, 1, 1).
Suppose also that the economy has only one asset, γ, which has a payoff of 1 in
both states.
Find the equilibrium price of γ (in terms of date 0 consumption).
Determine the equilibrium contingent consumption of agents A and B.
Explain what it means for an allocation to be Pareto efficient and for it to be
constrained Pareto efficient.
Is the equilibrium allocation Pareto efficient? Is it constrained Pareto efficient?
(In your answer you may appeal to any general results on the efficiency properties
of equilibrium allocations.)
[50%]
(b) Suppose instead that A’s endowment is (1, 1, 0) and that B’s endowment is (2, 0, 1),
and that γ as defined in part (a) is the only asset available in the economy.
Explain why γ will not be traded in equilibrium.
If the price for γ were 3, would the financial economy be in equilibrium?
[30%]
(c) Suppose that the endowments are as in part (b). In addition to γ suppose that
another asset, α, is available for trade; α has a payoff of 1 in state 1 and nothing in
state 2.
Without fully calculating the equilibrium, explain which agent will be selling α (in
strictly positive quantities) at equilibrium.
Which asset will have the higher price?
Is the equilibrium allocation Pareto efficient? Is it constrained Pareto efficient?
[20%]
A15536W1
7
last page
A15536W1
SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION
Honour School of Philosophy, Politics, and Economics
Honour School of Economics and Management
Honour School of History and Economics
MICROECONOMIC ANALYSIS
TRINITY TERM 2020
Thursday 04 June
Opening time 09:30 (BST)
You have 4 hours to complete the paper and upload your answer file.
Please start the answer to each question on a separate page.
There are 6 questions in this paper.
Answer four questions.
For multipart questions, the weight assigned to each part is indicated in square brackets.
The limit for essays is 1600 words, with technical material (sensibly sized diagrams
&/or equations, etc) contributing to the total at the rate of 400 words per A4 page.
Candidates may use their own calculators.
c
University of Oxford, 2020
1
1. (a) The sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, . . . is called a Fibonacci sequence. Let Fn denote the
nth Fibonacci number, that is Fn+1 = Fn + Fn−1, n ≥ 2, F1 = F2 = 1, and let
F
u
n+1
n =
.
Fn
(i) Find a matrix A such that un+1 = Aun.
Find det A. Is A invertible?
Compute the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A.
[20%]
(ii) Hence or otherwise, compute F2020.
(You may leave your answer in terms of square roots and expressions raised to
large powers.)
[30%]
(b) Consider the system of equations:
x5 + sy2 + s2 + 2tx = 0
2xy2 + s2x + t − 1
= 0
which implicitly defines functions x(s, t) and y(s, t).
(i) Consider the solution (x∗, y∗, s∗, t∗) = (0, 1, 0, 1).
Is the implicit function theorem applicable in a neighbourhood of this solution?
[20%]
(ii) Consider the solution (x∗, y∗, s∗, t∗) = (0, 1, −1, 1).
Compute the partial derivatives ∂x , ∂x , ∂y , ∂y in the neighbourhood of this solu-
∂s
∂t
∂s
∂t
tion.
[30%]
A15536W1
2
2. (a) (i) Write down the inequality that a continuous real-valued function must satisfy in
order for it to be concave.
(ii) If f and g are concave functions, show that min{f, g} is concave.
(iii) By examining their Hessians, or otherwise, determine whether or not the follow-
ing functions are concave on the domains on which they are defined:
f (x, y) = ln x + 3 ln y ,
g(x, y) = xy3 ,
h(x, y) = −x2 − 3y2 + 5xy .
[35%]
(b) A social planner wants to maximize a representative consumer’s utility
ln x + 3 ln y
by choosing output levels of the two goods x and y. Producing one unit of each good
takes fixed amounts of capital and labour, so the government faces two constraints:
x + 4y ≤ 20
and
4x + y ≤ 20 ,
with the first being the constraint on the total amount of capital used and the second
on labour.
(i) Explain briefly why non-negativity constraints can be ignored.
(ii) Write down the Kuhn-Tucker first-order conditions for the consumer and give
the multipliers an economic interpretation.
(iii) By examining each possible combination of binding and non-binding constraints,
show that there is a unique solution to the Kuhn-Tucker conditions.
(iv) Explain whether the solution you have found is optimal.
(v) Explain briefly, without performing detailed calculations, how your analysis
would change if the consumer’s utility function was xy3.
[65%]
A15536W1
3
turn over
3. (a) The Independence Axiom states that for any lotteries L1, L2, L and any p ∈ (0, 1)
L1 % L2 ⇐⇒ p ◦ L1 + (1 − p) ◦ L % p ◦ L2 + (1 − p) ◦ L
Show that if preferences satisfy this axiom, then for any p ∈ (0, 1) they also satisfy
L1 L2 ⇐⇒ p ◦ L1 + (1 − p) ◦ L p ◦ L2 + (1 − p) ◦ L (strict preference)
and L1 ∼ L2 ⇐⇒ p ◦ L1 + (1 − p) ◦ L ∼ p ◦ L2 + (1 − p) ◦ L (indifference)
Show also that if L1 % L2 and L3 % L4, then p◦L1 +(1−p)◦L3 % p◦L2 +(1−p)◦L4.
[40%]
(b) Suppose that the set of possible monetary outcomes for a collection of lotteries is
X = {−2, −1, 0, +1, +2}.
Suppose that a risk-averse expected utility maximizer who prefers more to less
compares the following two lotteries:
L1 = (1/5, 1/5, 1/5, 1/5, 1/5) and L2 = (1/15, 7/15, 0, 5/15, 2/15).
Which one does she prefer? Explain.
[20%]
(c) There are three possible outcomes for a farmer’s harvest, π1 < π2 < π3.
If the weather is poor, the probabilities of π1, π2, π3 are 1/3, 1/3, 1/3;
if the weather is fine, the probabilities of π1, π2, π3 are p1, p2, p3 respectively.
Define the Likelihood Ratio function, LR, by Pr[πk | fine ]/ Pr[πk | poor ] for k =
1, 2, 3.
(i) Find values for p1, p2, p3 such that this distribution first-order stochastically dom-
inates the 1/3, 1/3, 1/3 distribution, but the function LR is not monotonically
increasing.
(ii) In this three-outcome case with two possible states of the weather, either find
values for p1, p2, p3 such that the function LR is monotonically increasing, but
this distribution does not first-order stochastically dominate the 1/3, 1/3, 1/3
distribution, or show that if the function LR is monotonically increasing then
the p1, p2, p3 distribution first-order stochastically dominates the 1/3, 1/3, 1/3
distribution.
[40%]
A15536W1
4
4. A risk-neutral principal hires a risk-averse agent to operate the new machine in the
factory.
The unknown state of the machine will be bad (B) with probability 1/4,
moderate (M) with probability 1/2, or good (G) with probability 1/4. Output will be
either low (L), worth only 4 to the principal, or high (H), worth 40. The amount of the
output depends on the state of the machine, and on which of two effort levels that the
agent exerts, as summarised in the table.
bad (1/4)
mod. (1/2)
good (1/4)
output | e0
4
4
40
output | e1
4
40
40
√
The agent’s utility from receiving a wage w ≥ 0 and exerting effort e is
w − e, where
e = 0 if effort is e0, and 2 if effort is e1. The agent has a reservation utility of 0.
(a) When both effort and the amount of output are observable, what contract will the
principal offer to the agent?
[15%]
Now assume that effort is unobservable. The wage in the contract between the two
parties will depend only on the amount of output: wL if output is low, wH if it is high.
(b) What output-contingent wage contract will the principal offer to the agent?
√
(Note that the utility of the wage,
w, is non-negative.)
[35%]
(c) The principal can have the machine inspected – this would tell the principal only if
it is bad or not. (The inspection cannot distinguish between a moderate machine
and a good one.) If the principal had the machine inspected, then he could propose
one wage to the agent if the machine were bad, and could offer an output-contingent
wage contract to the agent otherwise.
What wage would the principal propose if the machine were bad?
What output-contingent wage contract would he offer the agent otherwise?
√
(Again, note that the utility of the wage,
w, is non-negative.)
Compute the principal’s expected net profit conditional on having the machine
inspected.
How much would the principal be willing to pay for the inspection?
[50%]
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turn over
5. (a) Suppose an agent has preferences given by u(x1, x2) = x1 x2 and an income m.
x1+x2
Find her Walrasian demands and show they are linear in income and homogeneous
of degree 0 in (p1, p2, m), where pi is the price of good i.
[30%]
For the rest of the question normalise prices by setting p1 = 1 and p2 = p.
(b) Consider an endowment economy with a set of agents, A. Agents have identical
preferences given by u(x1, x2) = x1x2 . Agent a has an endowment ωa = (ωa, ωa)
x
1
2
1+x2
and the aggregate endowment is ω = (ω1, ω2) 0. Denote by Z the aggregate
excess demand. Show that
√p0 + p0
(1, p) · Z(1, p0) ≤ 0
if and only if
ω1 + p0 ω2 ≤ (ω1 + p ω2) √
.
p0 + p
[15%]
(c) Using the equivalence displayed above in part (b) or otherwise, show that the ag-
gregate excess demand satisfies the Weak Axiom of Revealed Preferences.
What are the implications for the Walrasian equilibrium?
[30%]
(d) Find the Walrasian equilibrium price p∗.
How does p∗ depend on the ratio of aggregate endowment ω1/ω2?
[25%]
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6. Consider a financial economy that last two periods (today and tomorrow) with two
possible states tomorrow. There are two agents A and B with identical preferences
represented by
U (x0, x1, x2) = 2 ln(x0) + ln(x1) + ln(x2),
where x0 denotes consumption today (date 0) and xi denotes consumption tomorrow
(date 1) in state i. The endowments of the agents are given by ωA = (1, 1, 0) and
ωB = (0, 1, 1) respectively, where the first element is the endowment at date 0 and the
second & third elements are the endowments at date 1 in state 1 & state 2 respectively.
Suppose that there is a single asset, α, in this economy. One unit of this asset pays 0
in state 1 and pays 1 in state 2.
(a) Find the equilibrium price of α (in terms of date-0 consumption) and calculate the
contingent consumption of A and of B.
Is the allocation Pareto efficient?
[40%]
(b) Show that the utility of B in the equilibrium found in part (a) is 3 ln 1 .
3
Solve the problem of choosing x and y to maximize
2 ln(1 − x) + ln(y)
subject to 2 ln(x) + ln(1 − y) = 3 ln 1 .
3
Interpret your answer.
[20%]
(c) In addition to α, suppose that another asset β is also available, one unit of which
pays 1 at date 1 independent of the state.
Find the new equilibrium in this financial economy.
Is the new allocation Pareto efficient?
[40%]
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SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION
Honour School of Philosophy, Politics, and Economics
Honour School of Economics and Management
Honour School of History and Economics
LABOUR ECONOMICS AND INEQUALITY
TRINITY TERM 2020
Thursday 4 June
Opening time 09:30 (BST)
You have 4 hours to complete the paper and upload your answer file.
Please start the answer to each question on a separate page.
There are 8 questions in this paper.
Answer three questions.
The limit for essays is 1600 words, with technical material (sensibly sized diagrams
&/or equations, etc) contributing to the total at the rate of 400 words per A4 page.
Candidates may use their own calculators.
c
University of Oxford, 2020
1
1. Describe how our definition of causality is related to the idea of a randomized experi-
ment. Make sure to elaborate on the role of exogenous interventions, unobserved het-
erogeneity, potential outcomes and individual versus average treatment effects. Discuss
some actual and possible applications of randomized experiments in labour economics.
2. Consider the regression discontinuity approach to identification of causal effects. De-
scribe the key assumptions driving this identification approach. What are possible
reasons why these assumptions might be violated? What are possible ways to test the
plausibility of these assumptions? Discuss some actual and possible applications of the
regression discontinuity approach in labour economics.
3. Describe how distributional decompositions have been used to estimate the impact of
declining union membership on the wage distribution, taking into account the possible
effects of demographic change. What has been the impact of declining union member-
ship on average wages and the dispersion of wages in the United States? How does this
differ between men and women? What might explain this difference?
4. Describe the monopsonistic model of labour demand. Suppose that a firm’s revenues
are given by R(L) when employing L workers, and that it has to pay wages w(L) in
order to hire L workers. Derive the firm’s profit maximizing labour demand. What
does this model imply for the impact of minimum wages on labour demand?
5. Describe the experimental design used by Bettinger et al. (2012) to study the role of
application assistance and information in college decisions. Can the results of the study
be reconciled with a stylized model in which students make payoff-maximizing choices?
Which general conclusions can be drawn from this study?
6. Describe the incentivized experimental task developed by Niederle and Vesterlund (2007)
to measure competitiveness and summarize the results of this study. Can gender dif-
ferences in competitiveness account for gender differences in track choice? Are gender
differences in competitiveness likely to be a result of socialization?
7. The CEO of a large manufacturing company claims that the company cannot raise
profits by paying workers more than the market-clearing wage. Critically assess this
statement considering existing empirical evidence from laboratory and field studies.
8. A researcher is attempting to estimate the impact of immigration on the wages of
native workers. Explain the problem of the ‘missing counterfactual’ and critically assess
whether a difference-in-differences methodology can be used to overcome the problem.
What have existing studies concluded regarding the impact of immigration on native
wages?
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